Increased globalization and the expansion of multinational corporations across nations have made international assignments more common in recent years. A recent survey showed that 73% of expatriates, referred to as individuals who relocate to a new host country for a job and have a limited time frame on their assignments [1], were accompanied by a partner/spouse and 52% of expatriates had children with them [2]. Children who relocate with their expatriate parents often spend a large part of their growing up years in countries or cultures other than those of their parents [3], and are commonly known as third culture kids. Frequently, third culture kids are confronted with new challenges, such as establishing self-identity, finding a sense of belonging, adapting to a new school, and making new friends [4]. However, by living in different cultures, third culture kids have the opportunity to develop skills to manage and adapt to changes, and to experience and be more open to different cultures [5]. The ability to successfully adjust to this new environment can enrich third culture kids’ lives [6], while failure to manage these challenges can result in negative consequences for psychological well-being [7].

Unfortunately, up to 70% of relocations fail due to family reasons, such as the inability or unwillingness of family members to adapt to the foreign environment [8-10], resulting in high costs for organizations, ranging from US $250,000 to US $1 million, depending on various factors [11]. Failure of relocation is often defined as the premature return of an expatriate [8]. Research suggests that the key to successful international assignments of expatriates is understanding factors that influence their family’s well-being and sociocultural adjustment processes [11,12]. Well-being is defined as the subjective emotional state associated with positive feelings and an overall satisfaction with one’s life [13]. Studies have shown that relocation can negatively impact one’s subjective well-being, such as causing emotional and social problems, and in more severe cases, it could lead to psychological disorders, such as depression and eating disorders [14]. On the other hand, sociocultural adjustment refers to the individual’s ability to cope with daily problems in the new environment, the degree of fit and familiarity to the new host culture, and the redefinition of personal and social roles within the host environment [4,15].

Previous studies have identified various factors that promote well-being and sociocultural adjustment of third culture kids and their families. Studies involving only third culture kids found that secure attachment, open mindedness, emotional stability, and a high level of social initiative were associated with better adjustment [16]. In addition, family characteristics, such as family adaptability, family cohesion, and family communication, have been found to predict higher levels of sociocultural adjustment, with family cohesion being the strongest influence of both sociocultural adjustment and quality of life of third culture kids [16].

Similarly, studies that examined expatriate families as a whole and involved all family members as informants found that a supportive climate, good family communication, and positive feelings about the international assignment were associated with better adjustment [17]. Healthy relationships between spouses/partners were also found to be important for successful adjustment among expatriate families [9].

A 2018 review by Sterle et al [4] revealed several limitations within the current literature. First, most studies consist of cross-sectional surveys, case studies, or narratives to describe third culture kids’ well-being and adjustment. Findings from such studies do not examine well-being and sociocultural adjustment as a long-term process and do not provide any directional conclusions of the relationships between the various variables under study [4]. Second, there are limited studies that combine both quantitative and qualitative approaches, as well as the multi-informant approach. While both quantitative and qualitative approaches offer interesting findings, the use of mixed methods may enhance the credibility and confirmability of findings related to third culture kids’ well-being and adjustment [18]. On the other hand, the multi-informant approach may provide a more detailed picture of third culture kids’ functioning, which has important implications for subsequent interventions [19,20]. Finally, there are limited longitudinal studies that focus on the family as a unit and all family members. As research has indicated that the success of an expatriate assignment is dependent on the family, there is a need to examine the well-being and adjustment of all family members. As such, this study aims to address the limitations of the existing literature by using a longitudinal design that combines both quantitative and qualitative approaches. In addition, we will adopt a multi-informant approach by recruiting a child and a parent in the quantitative study and all family members in the qualitative study. We will also include a variety of measures that examine psychological, cultural, and family factors.

The term expatriate is often defined as a person who is relocated to another country by a multinational company for a temporary work assignment [21]. However, the terms expatriates and migrants are sometimes used interchangeably to refer to people who move outside their home countries for work [22]. Berry and Bell [21] highlighted several differences between expatriates and migrants in terms of their occupation, skills, compensation, etc. For instance, expatriates are often characterized as workers at executive, managerial, or professional positions, who have high skills, high compensation, and organizational benefits, while migrants are often characterized as skilled or unskilled laborers, who have low wages and no organizational benefits [21,23]. Based on these differences in definitions, we chose to use the term expatriates to define our study population. The focus on expatriates is largely driven by our study team’s clinical expertise and interests. In the last 5 years, our psychotherapy center has seen an increase in requests for psychological services among expatriate families. However, there is still a lack of evidence on how relocation and sociocultural adjustment impact the onset and maintenance of psychological disorders, as well as limited evidence-based interventions to support this population [4]. In addition, Switzerland, with an estimate of 25% foreign nationals, has been consistently rated as one of the most desirable destinations for expatriates due to its high quality of life and salaries, but at the same time, it has also been rated as one of the most difficult places to settle into [24], highlighting potential adjustment difficulties. Therefore, understanding factors that influence well-being and adjustment among expatriate families in Switzerland is an important and relevant topic.

Our first research question examines the roles of emotion regulation, self-esteem, resilience, and negative self-thoughts for well-being and adjustment among third culture kids over time. Previous research has demonstrated that emotion regulation [25,26], negative self-thoughts [27-29], resilience [30,31], and stress [32] are important psychological processes for healthy development, such as establishing relationships and adjusting to stressful situations [33], in nonthird culture kid populations. Hence, we expect that better emotion regulation skills, self-esteem, and resilience; fewer negative cognitions; and lower stress will enhance third culture kids’ well-being and sociocultural adjustment. The first hypothesis (hypothesis 1) is as follows: Increased levels of emotion regulation, self-esteem, and resilience, and decreased levels of negative self-thoughts and stress can significantly predict increased levels of well-being and adjustment among third culture kids over time.

Our second research question examines the roles of cultural intelligence and acculturative stress on well-being and adjustment among third culture kids over time. Cultural intelligence is defined as “an individual’s capability to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse settings” [34], and has been widely explored as a factor of success in the relocation of adult expatriates [35-37] and in the adjustment and well-being of migrant populations [38]. On the other hand, acculturative stress (eg, difficulties assimilating to the beliefs, values, and norms of a host culture) has been found to be a strong predictor of depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation among migrant families [39]. As such, we expect to find that higher cultural intelligence and lower acculturative stress are associated with higher levels of well-being and sociocultural adjustment among third culture kids. The second hypothesis (hypothesis 2) is as follows: Increased levels of cultural intelligence and decreased levels of acculturative stress significantly predict increased levels of well-being and adjustment among third culture kids over time.

Our third research question examines the roles of family functioning, couple satisfaction, and parental stress in well-being and adjustment among third culture kids over time. As the place of residence remains unstable, the family constitutes the stable part in a third culture kid’s life during relocation. Thus, the family serves as an important source of social and emotional support during the relocation experience [4,40]. Previous research has demonstrated the impact of family functioning, parental stress, and couple satisfaction on child well-being [41-45]. Hence, we expect to find higher levels of family functioning and couple satisfaction, and lower levels of parental stress to be associated with higher levels of well-being and sociocultural adjustment among third culture kids. The third hypothesis (hypothesis 3) is as follows: Increased levels of family functioning and couple satisfaction, and decreased levels of parental stress significantly predict increased levels of well-being and adjustment among third culture kids over time.

Our fourth research question aims to obtain a detailed understanding of the transition process and adjustment to Switzerland from a family perspective. In addition, it aims to further understand the factors that influence sociocultural adjustment and well-being.

Data collection started on August 25, 2019, and will end on July 1, 2022. As of March 15, 2022, a total of 138 children and 126 parents have completed the baseline online survey. In addition, 44 children and 48 parents have completed the 1-year follow-up online survey. A total of 8 families have completed the baseline family interview, while 4 families have completed the 1-year follow-up interview. Transcription of the interviews is on-going. Results from this study will be presented at various conferences and are expected to be published in peer-reviewed journals from late 2022 onwards.