The working, or therapeutic, alliance is one of the concepts regarded as common to all forms of psychotherapy. Bordin proposed a model consisting of 3 parts—task, bond, and goal—which he stated could apply to all change situations [1]. He suggested that the working alliance was a key factor in these change situations, in which a person tries to achieve change with the assistance of another person, and argued that the concept was universally applicable to all forms of psychotherapy. Following the publication of Bordin’s original paper, the working alliance has been investigated in numerous studies. The results of this research on the relationship between working alliance and outcome indicate that there is a correlation between client-rated working alliance and post-treatment outcome in a variety of disorders and treatments [2,3]. There is evidence for the superiority of client-rated, compared to observer- or therapist-rated, working alliance at the beginning of treatment in predicting outcome [2], however the results are mixed [3,4]. These correlation effects seem to be fairly robust, independent of study design [3] and type of psychological treatment [4], and are replicated in physical rehabilitation [5]. Taken together, there is a body of evidence indicating that working alliance, especially if rated by the client, is an important factor in predicting treatment outcome.

Internet-based cognitive behavior therapy (ICBT) in the form of guided self-help has been proven to be effective for a range of conditions, with effect sizes that equal face-to-face cognitive behavioral therapy [6-10]. There is evidence to suggest that the benefits of ICBT are enhanced by personal contact [11-13]. There is further evidence to suggest that a relationship formed on the Internet is as strong and as deep as its offline counterparts [14]. In a recent review of the therapeutic relationship in the broader field of e-therapy [15], the authors concluded that even though this topic has been investigated, the studies that did take this into account showed that therapeutic relationships or alliance is equivalent to face-to-face therapy, and that there is a relationship between alliance and outcome. Previous studies showed similarities between working alliance measured during face-to-face treatment and working alliance measured during Internet treatment [16-18], by using comparision groups [16,18], and by comparing with earlier research on face-to-face therapy [16]. These findings lead the authors of these papers to conclude that a therapeutic relationship can be formed during Internet-based treatment.

While there is growing evidence to indicate that a working alliance is formed in ICBT [19], not much is known about the possible benefits this may have on outcome in these treatments; this has been investigated with mixed results. For example, Knaevelsrud and Maercker [20] found a nonsignificant correlation between alliance ratings and treatment outcome in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), while a small correlation has been shown for adolescents with anxiety disorders [21].

In a recently published study by our research group [22], no significant correlations were found in the analysis of working alliance as a predictor in patients with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder (SAD), and depression treated with ICBT in 3 separate studies. There are several differences between that study and the one reported here. The participants in the Andersson et al [22] study were included only if their primary diagnosis were matched with the focus of the study (ie, major depression, social anxiety disorder, or generalized anxiety disorder), comorbidities were not assessed or addressed in the treatment, and the ICBT treatment was strictly manualized. In the study presented in this article, we were using the novel format of a tailored ICBT treatment protocol. This may seem like a small difference, but this format makes it possible to address participants’ comorbidities directly, and also to tailor the treatment due to patients’ preferences. We believe that this format is more similar to face-to-face CBT where a personalized functional analysis or case conceptualization is used, and therefore the therapeutic alliance may be shown to yield a stronger correlation with the outcome.

There is also the possibility that, in Internet-based treatments as well in other treatment formats, alliance is at least partly based on patient expectations before treatment and may therefore exist even before the start of therapy [16,23]. The definition of expectation here relates both to the patients’ treatment expectation (eg, beliefs about what the respective roles might be, the treatment format and the duration of treatment), and outcome expectations, which answers questions about the possible beneficial effects of the treatment [24]. We believe that the persons who were recruited to this treatment study knew about the format and length, since this information was clarified on the study website before patients started to fill in the application form, but could have different expectations regarding roles and to what extent this might be a proper treatment for their unique set of problems. The possible differences regarding roles and possible benefits of treatment may stem from the novelty of the treatment format and the fact that neither of the participants had any earlier experience from ICBT.

Little research has been conducted on the predictors of ICBT outcomes. As the use of ICBT broadens, it is increasingly important to establish which factors contribute to outcome. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate whether self-reported working alliance, as measured by the Working Alliance Inventory Short form (WAI-S) scale early in treatment (week 3), could serve as a predictor of outcome in tailored ICBT for a heterogeneous group of mixed anxiety disorders. In order to control the possibility of expected working alliance, we also measured alliance before treatment. We expected alliance ratings to be high on the basis of previous research, and measured early in treatment to be a possible predictor of treatment outcome. The potential implication from this study is twofold: (1) to further add to the body of evidence showing that a working alliance can be formed over the Internet and that can equal the alliance rated in face-to-face therapies, (2) if alliance is shown to predict treatment outcome, it could be important for the therapists guiding these programs to work explicitly on trying to foster a working alliance in order to improve outcome.

Mean alliance ratings on the WAI-S including correlations with residualized gain scores on CORE-OM are presented in Table 1. Alliance ratings increased from pre-treatment to mid-treatment, (t ₂₆=5.5, P<.001) and the expected alliance correlated significantly with the early alliance rating (r=.57, P=.002, n=27). The post-treatment score on the WAI (mean 6.2, SD 0.90) did not change from mid-treatment.

WAI-S measured early in treatment correlated significantly with residualized gain scores from CORE-OM post treatment (r=-.47, P=.019, n=25), while WAI-S measurements at pre-treatment did not (r=-.17, P=.425, n=25). Alliance ratings at post-treatment were also correlated with residualized gain scores (r=-.42, P=.037, n=25).

When controlling expected working alliance measured pre-treatment, in a multiple regression model the role of the alliance rating during treatment did not change (B=-.53, P=.027, n=25) In addition, controlling a history of psychological treatment (B=-.42, P=.039, n=25), and levels of symptoms (B=-.44, P=.036, n=25) also did not change the association. Controlling age did not change the role of the working alliance (B=-.49, P=.016, n=25), whereas controlling gender made the association between working alliance and outcome fall slightly (B=-.40, P=.058, n=25).

The aim of this paper was to investigate whether client-rated working alliance could predict outcome, measured by CORE-OM, for a tailored ICBT for anxiety disorders. We found significant correlations between alliance ratings made early in treatment (week 3) and treatment outcome.

ICBT has been found to be effective for a range of psychiatric conditions [18,37], but the underlying mechanisms of change are not well known [38]. There is evidence to indicate better treatment outcome when personal support is combined with online material, compared to unguided self-help [12]. There is, however, also evidence indicating that a technician can be as effective as a therapist [39-41]. Working alliance is regarded as important in face-to-face treatments with a robust, albeit moderate, effect on outcome [4], and as alliance ratings have been shown to be as high in ICBT as in face-to-face therapy [17,18], investigating the possible effect on treatment outcome in this therapy format was of interest. In our sample, we found alliance ratings equal to those typically found in face-to-face therapy, and the tentative conclusion drawn from this study is that it may be possible, at least in a self-recruited sample, to form a working alliance in ICBT. Moreover, alliance ratings increased from baseline, which suggests that ICBT does not lead to worsened alliance. We also found significant correlations between alliance ratings made early in treatment (week 3) and treatment outcome, raising the possibility that early working alliance does affect outcome and might be an important factor even in this treatment format. This is consistent with previous research suggesting that early alliance may predict lower levels of anxiety in cognitive therapy [42]. The findings are, however, mixed in ICBT with regards to the strength of the association between alliance and outcome [20,22]. In this study, we found a significant correlation between working alliance measured early in treatment and outcome in a small sample of patients with comorbidities, and with one third using medications for their condition. If this is explained due to the treatment format of tailoring the treatment, the face-to-face diagnostic interview, or other sample specific variables is not known. These might all be possibilities. In the Andersson et al study [22], the ICBT treatments were manualized and this might be an explanation for the lack of significant alliance outcome associations in their study. This could also be seen in the context of the suggestion by Andrusyna et al [27] that working alliance should be measured differently in CBT than in other forms of psychotherapy. They proposed a 2-factor model consisting of agreement/confidence and relationship. The mixed results may stem from the possibility that the working alliance should be measured differently in CBT.

There has been some debate (eg, [43]) about whether patient expectation could be a factor contributing to early patient-rated working alliance. In an attempt to clarify this, we measured expected working alliance at the time of the application to participate in the study. These measurements were made before any personal contacts had been made with the participants. It is possible that the self-recruited participants in this study were more positive about the treatment format from the start and about the therapists who provided the treatment, even if the data does not suggest this to be the case.

There are other limitations to be considered. Firstly, the small sample size of 27 participants makes it hard to draw conclusions from this study alone, especially since gender seems to affect the association between working alliance on outcome. In this small sample consisting of only 9 men and 18 women, it is hard to take this matter any further, and we believe that this study needs replication with a larger sample to make it possible to explore this issue further. The results are, however, consistent with findings from research on face-to-face therapy, and research showing that Internet relationships can be as important as face-to-face relationships [44].

Secondly, we used the total score of the WAI-S and did not analyze the subscales, given the high intercorrelation between the 3 subscales. This could be seen as a limitation, as we did not investigate whether some subscales showed higher correlation with post-treatment CORE-OM scores. In order to improve the WAI and WAI-S psychometric properties, a new version called Working Alliance Inventory-Short Revised (WAI-SR, [35]) has been developed. Munder et al [34] have shown that WAI-SR distinguished more clearly between the task and bond aspects of the therapeutic alliance, as defined by Bordin’s 3-factor model, making WAI-SR more reliable for subscale division.

Thirdly, the fact that WAI-S was originally designed for face-to-face treatment could be regarded as a limitation. Minor amendments were made for the study (eg, “treatment” was changed to “Internet treatment”, and “contact” to “email contact”), with which we hoped to adapt the scale to this treatment format. As regards measuring outcomes via the Internet, research has shown that this is as reliable as paper-and-pen administration of self-reported measures [45-47].

Fourthly, measurement of the working alliance at week 3 was not accompanied by symptom measurement, so we were unable to estimate to what extent outcome was due to the working alliance and how much was due to the treatment itself.

In spite of the limitations, this study provides some evidence that the quality of the relationship between patient and therapist can be important in Internet treatment, although the working alliance alone may not entirely account for its effectiveness. Our research group has, as a first step, conducted a randomized controlled trial with a larger sample size (n=100) to test the effectiveness of tailored ICBT treatment for anxiety disorders on a primary care population. The next step might be to replicate this study, with the larger sample size, in order to further investigate the relationship between therapist and patient and its effects on outcome.